What are tariff barriers in international trade?

A tariff is a tax a government charges on goods coming into its country. Your buyer doesn't pay it up front, but it's added to the landed cost of your product, which means your price in that market goes up.

Governments do this to protect local industries from cheaper imports, and sometimes just to collect revenue. Either way, the exporter feels it first.

A practical example: Say you're shipping cotton fabric to Brazil. Brazil charges a 20% import duty on that category. Your buyer clears customs, pays the duty, and suddenly your fabric costs 20% more than it did when you quoted it. That difference either comes out of your margin or makes you more expensive than local suppliers.

What are the main types of tariff barriers?

Here are the main types of tariff barriers you'll come across.

This is the most common type. The duty is calculated as a percentage of your product's declared value. So if a country charges 15% ad valorem on electronics and you're shipping a consignment worth $10,000, you owe $1,500 in duty.

Here, the tariff is a fixed amount per unit, regardless of the product's cost. A country might charge $2 per kilogram of imported coffee beans, whether that coffee is worth $5/kg or $15/kg. This can hit lower-value products harder.

This is a combination of both. You pay a percentage of the product's value, plus a fixed amount per unit. Luxury goods often attract compound tariffs, since governments want both a revenue cut and a price deterrent on high-value imports.

For example, a country might charge 10% of the invoice value plus $5 per kilogram on imported chocolates. So a 100 kg shipment worth $2,000 would attract $200 (10% ad valorem) plus $500 (specific duty), bringing the total tariff to $700.

Protective tariffs are designed to make foreign goods expensive enough that local buyers stick to domestically produced alternatives.&nbsp;

Revenue tariffs are less about blocking trade and more about collecting income for the government.&nbsp;

The duty on petroleum imports in many countries, for instance, isn't meant to stop imports; it's just a steady revenue source.

A non-tariff barrier is any restriction on trade that isn't a tax. It could be a rule, a standard, a quota, a licensing requirement, or a procedure that governs what enters or leaves a country. Unlike a tariff, there's no clear number attached to it. You just find out you can't sell there, or that selling there costs far more than you planned.

Countries use these measures for all kinds of reasons: food safety, environmental protection, national security, and public health. Some of those reasons are completely legitimate. But governments don't always draw a clear line between protecting public health and protecting local industry, and for an exporter, the impact is the same either way.

A practical example: An Indian food exporter shipping to the EU, for instance, may need to obtain FSSAI-aligned documentation and pass pesticide residue checks before the goods are cleared.

What are the main types of non-tariff barriers?

Non-tariff barriers show up at different points in the export process. Here are the main types to know:

A quota is a hard limit on how much of a product can enter a country within a given period. If you're exporting garments to a country that allows only 500,000 units of a particular fabric category per year, and that limit is reached in Q2, your Q3 shipment will wait until the next cycle.

Some products need government approval before they can be imported. Your buyer must apply for and obtain that license before your shipment can clear customs. For exporters, this adds an unpredictable step to the timeline that's entirely outside your control.

These are product standards, testing requirements, and labeling rules set by the destination country. Your product has to meet them before it's allowed in. An Indian electronics exporter selling to Europe, for instance, needs CE certification confirming the product meets EU safety and electromagnetic standards. Without it, the shipment doesn't clear.

These apply mainly to food, agricultural products, and anything involving animals or plants. The destination country inspects for pesticide residues, disease, contamination, or non-compliance with its food safety standards. Indian basmati rice exports to the EU, for example, are regularly tested for pesticide levels, and shipments that don't pass get rejected at the port.

When a government financially supports its own producers, it indirectly makes imports less competitive. If a country subsidizes its wheat farmers, locally produced wheat is cheaper on the shelf than anything you ship in, even if your product is genuinely better. There's no rule blocking you, but the economics work against you.

Lengthy documentation requirements, inconsistent inspections, and slow clearance processes delay shipments and add costs you didn't budget for. A few extra days at the border means storage charges, missed delivery windows, and buyers who start looking elsewhere.

What is the difference between tariff and non-tariff barriers?

Both restrict trade, but they work differently and require different responses from exporters. Here's a side-by-side look at how they compare in practice.

For small exporters, non-tariff barriers tend to be the harder problem. A tariff rate is published, and you can price around it. A certification requirement you didn't know about, or a quota that filled up before your shipment arrived, is much harder to plan for.

How do tariff and non-tariff barriers affect international trade?

Trade barriers do more than slow goods at the border. They affect your pricing, your cash flow, and sometimes your ability to enter a market at all

How can exporters navigate barriers to global trade?

Here are a few ways in which exporters can plan ahead and navigate barriers to global trade:

Research the destination market requirements before exporting

Partner with customs brokers or freight forwarders

Use digital tools for tracking and payments

Simplify your cross-border payments with Skydo

Navigating trade barriers already takes enough bandwidth. Skydo handles the payment side so you're not also chasing transfers, decoding fee structures, or waiting on settlements while your shipment clears.

<a href="https://www.skydo.com/">Explore how Skydo works for Indian exporters →</a>

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Skydo makes compliance easy with free and automated FIRA and assisted eBRC closure.

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A packing list describes the physical details of your shipment, what's inside, how it's packed, and how much it weighs. It covers item descriptions, number of packages, packaging type (carton, crate, or pallet), net weight, gross weight, and dimensions.

It serves 4 key stakeholders in the shipment journey.&nbsp;

However, it does not include pricing or payment terms. That's the commercial invoice's job.&nbsp;

[Here is an editable <a href="https://skydo-assets.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/strapi-assets/packing_list_template_b8bae18708.xlsx">Export Packing List Form&nbsp;</a>.]&nbsp;<a href="https://skydo-assets.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/strapi-assets/packing_list_template_b8bae18708.xlsx"></a>

Why is a packing list mandatory for exports?

Customs officers use the packing list to verify your goods against the shipping bill without opening every package. Any mismatch can trigger an inspection delay, penalty, or seizure. It's also required for Electronic Export Information (EEI) verification under Indian Customs.

Carriers use it to calculate total weight, plan container loading, and balance cargo. If your shipment is sharing a container with other exporters (Less than Container Load), your marks and numbers on the packing list are the only way to identify which boxes belong to you. It also flags any hazardous goods that need special handling.

Banks require the packing list for LC payment verification, and it must exactly match the LC terms. If the item descriptions, weight, or package count don't align, the bank can refuse payment. This is one of the most common reasons for LC discrepancies in Indian exports. Insurers also need it to validate claims for damage or loss during transit.

Export packing list format: what goes into it

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A standard export packing list format has four parts.&nbsp;

This section identifies who's shipping and who's receiving. Include the exporter's full name, address, GSTIN, and <a href="https://www.skydo.com/blog/iec-code">IEC</a> (Import Export Code). Add the consignee's name, address, and country, plus a notify party if different from the consignee. Reference numbers matter here: the invoice number and date (must match the commercial invoice exactly), the buyer's PO, contract, or LC number, and the packing list number and date.

Mention the mode of transport (sea, air, road, or rail), vessel or flight name, voyage or flight number, and port of loading and discharge. If the final destination differs from the discharge port, state that separately. If you have booked an entire container for yourself (Full Container Load), include the container number and seal number.

This is the core of the document. For each line item, include a serial number, marks and numbers printed on outer packaging, and a description of goods that matches the commercial invoice word for word. Add the <a href="https://www.skydo.com/blog/hsn-full-form-explained">HSN code</a>, quantity with unit of measurement, number of packages, and type (cartons, crates, pallets, drums), net weight, gross weight, and dimensions per package. Dimensions are especially important for air freight and LCL shipments.

Summarise the entire shipment: total number of packages, total net and gross weight, and total volume in cubic metres. Close with a declaration and signature from an authorised signatory, accompanied by the company stamp.

Most exporters piece together their packing list from memory or copy an old one. These templates are pre-filled with sample data and built for Indian exporters: GSTIN, IEC, HSN codes, and all.

Best for most exporters. Auto-calculates total net weight, gross weight, package count, and CBM as you fill in each line item. Comes with a separate instructions sheet and sample data you can overwrite.

[<a href="https://skydo-assets.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/strapi-assets/packing_list_template_b8bae18708.xlsx">Download Excel template</a>]

Best for exporters who want a clean, printable document. You can edit and include your data.

[<a href="https://skydo-assets.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/strapi-assets/packing_list_template_4340c1641b.docx">Download Word template</a>]

Best for quick reference or printing. A blank form with all required fields labelled, you can fill and download it.

[<a href="https://skydo-assets.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/strapi-assets/packing_list_template_be3a02dc67.pdf">Download PDF template</a>]

Combined invoice-cum-packing list template

Indian Foreign Trade Policy allows a single combined document that covers both pricing (from the commercial invoice) and physical details (from the packing list). This template has both.

Use this only when your logistics are straightforward, and your buyer or bank explicitly accepts a combined document.

Start with your commercial invoice open. Everything flows from there.

Step 1: Pull details from the commercial invoice

Copy the buyer details, invoice number, and item descriptions directly. These must match the invoice word for word.

Fill in the mode of transport, vessel or flight name, ports of loading and discharge, and container number if it's an FCL shipment.

Add each line item with the full description, HSN code, and quantity. Go line by line against the invoice and don't skip anything.

For each item, note the number of packages, packaging type (carton, crate, pallet), and the marks and numbers printed on the outer packaging.

Record the net weight (goods only) and gross weight (goods plus packaging) for each package. Do this physically. Don't estimate.

Note the length, width, and height for each package. If you're shipping LCL or air freight, calculate CBM from these measurements.

Sum up total packages, total net weight, total gross weight, and total CBM in the footer row.

Add the declaration text and have the authorised signatory sign and stamp the document before it goes anywhere.

Hold the packing list against the physical goods and the weighment slip. If anything doesn't match, fix it now. This step is non-negotiable.

The packing list handles the physical side; the invoice handles the financial side. Here is a side-by-side comparison between packing list and a commercial invoice.

Packing list differences by shipment mode

The core format stays the same across all modes. What changes is the level of detail each requires.

GST requirements for export packing lists

The packing list itself isn't a GST document, but it must be consistent with your GST-compliant export invoice.

HSN codes on the packing list must exactly match those on the invoice and shipping bill. Item descriptions need to be consistent across the packing list, invoice, GSTR-1 (Table 6A), and shipping bill. Any inconsistency across these documents can create problems at Customs or during GST refund processing.

If you're exporting under a <a href="https://www.skydo.com/blog/all-you-need-to-know-about-lut-for-tech-service-export">Letter of Undertaking (LUT)</a>, the packing list forms part of the zero-rated supply documentation chain. And if you're using a combined invoice-cum-packing list, make sure all GST fields are included: GSTIN, HSN codes, taxable value, and IGST amount alongside the physical shipment details.Common mistakes to avoid

Once the shipping bill is filed and the cargo is on its way, the next step is getting paid.

That's where Skydo comes in. Skydo is an RBI-authorised payment aggregator built for Indian exporters, and it handles the payment side of what the packing list started.

With Skydo, you get live forex rates with zero margin, so you know your exact INR receivable before the payment even lands. You get instant <a href="https://www.skydo.com/blog/importance-of-fira-for-freelancers">FIRA</a> in your inbox, which you'll need for EDPMS closure and bank compliance. Purpose codes are handled cleanly, keeping your AD bank records accurate. And faster settlement means better cash flow for your next order. Skydo now offers bulk shipping bill uploads and auto matches them against your bank generated IRM numbers, this helps you generate eBRC in a single click.

The documentation gets your shipment out. Skydo gets your money in.

<a href="https://www.skydo.com/">Explore Skydo!</a>

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Once your EGM is filed, Skydo helps you manage payment tracking and compliance closure seamlessly

What Is an Export General Manifest (EGM) in Customs?

An EGM in customs is a document that carriers like shipping lines, airlines or an authorised agent file with the Indian customs to confirm an exporter’s goods have physically left India.&nbsp;

An EGM includes the shipping bill reference number, number of containers or packages loaded, weight, port code, destination, etc. Hence, an EGM acts as proof of export for customs and without proper filing, your shipment entry might remain incomplete on ICEGATE.

A proper EGM ICEGATE filing is important for the following reasons:&nbsp;

An EGM ICEGATE filing is the responsibility of the carrier line and not of the exporter.&nbsp;

Before your goods are exported to another country, the responsible airline, shipping line or an authorised agent, as per the transport mode, fills this document on the ICEGATE portal.&nbsp;

However, you must note that carriers must file it within a specified timeframe. After getting the LEO for the exported goods, a shipping line or its agents must file the EGM within 7 days of the departure of a vessel from the port of loading. If you are exporting goods through air, the responsible airline or its Ground Handling Agent (GHA) must file the EGM within 24 hours of aircraft departure.&nbsp;

While the carrier lines or their agents handle the EGM filing, as an exporter, you must match their documentation accuracy to avoid any potential delays. For this, match the <a href="https://www.skydo.com/blog/how-to-download-shipping-bill-from-icegate">ICEGATE shipping bill</a> details with entries made by the carrier of your goods for export.&nbsp;

While the carrier line completes the EGM ICEGATE filing, you must also have an idea about what it includes. For this, know the 4 types of forms associated with EGM filing and their contents:

What Is the Difference Between EGM and IGM?

As an exporter, as you get familiar with the EGM ICEGATE filing process, you may also come across the term the Import General Manifest or IGM. To avert confusion, refer to the following table for their differences:

How to File EGM on ICEGATE: A Step-by-Step Guide

To ensure a proper EGM ICEGATE filing, a collaborative approach between you (the exporter) and your carrier is important. While it is your carrier’s responsibility to file an EGM, your proactive involvement can ensure that it is properly filed.&nbsp;

Here’s how the process typically unfolds:

Step 1: Prerequisites and Shipment Coordination

As your cargo gets ready to align, share your shipping bill details, invoice value, specifications of the packages, etc., with your carrier. An ICEGATE registration is typically required for full tracking access, but you may check the basic EGM status with the acknowledgement number that ICEGATE generates.&nbsp;

Step 2: Customs Clearance with LEO Issuance

Upon inspection, once the Indian customs issues the LEO and hands over your cargo, your carrier generates a provisional manifest, cross-referencing your shipping bill against the loaded items.&nbsp;

Step 3: Carrier EGM Filing and Validation

Your carrier logs in to the ICEGATE portal with their digital signature certificate. They upload a digital EGM copy in XML format. It gets automatched against your shipping bill in the Indian Customs EDI System (ICES).&nbsp;

Step 4: EGM Tracking and Validation

After 1–3 days, check the ICEGATE portal to confirm your EGM is validated. A matched EGM is essential for IGST refunds, duty drawback, and customs-linked export benefits. It also supports eBRC processing and export compliance.&nbsp;

Step 5:&nbsp; Refunds, Claims and Export Closure

As you have a validated EGM copy in your hand, file for your GST refund on the GST portal under Export of Goods/Services. You may link it to your GSTR-1 return for an automatic reconciliation. Banks utilise it to release Letter of Credit (LC) payment and DGFT for <a href="https://www.skydo.com/blog/rodtep-scheme-guide">RoDTEP </a>claims.&nbsp;

Here are the steps to follow an EGM filing afterwards:&nbsp;

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Don’t let EGM errors delay your refunds and strain cash flow. As you track export compliance, <a href="https://www.skydo.com/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_campaign=Skydo_Phrase_Nov22&amp;utm_medium=ad&amp;utm_content=Skydo_Phrase_Nov22&amp;utm_term=skydo&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=21929473575&amp;gbraid=0AAAAA9be3yiWPbIBL8u_v7bF-M31Pgty0&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwnN3OBhA8EiwAfpTYeuW-4vRN-Uy8mjZZynE2yZLTZgjv7SqL5FHDMgq66edtlqnkp05lxhoCbzkQAvD_BwE">Skydo</a> helps you track export payments smoothly with instant FIRA support.

EGM vs Shipping Bill: Differences and Similarities

While both EGM ICEGATE filing and shipping bills are integral to the export process, they operate at different stages and serve distinct compliance purposes. Understanding how they complement each other helps avoid delays in export closure and benefit claims:

What are Common EGM Errors and How to Fix Them?&nbsp;

Even if you are a seasoned exporter, you must note some common EGM issues that still may happen and tackle them:

How Can Skydo Help After Your EGM Is Filed?

Just as exporters track EGM status to avoid shipment uncertainty, payment tracking also matters. With Skydo, you can track your export payments clearly at every stage, so you always know where your money is.&nbsp;

Streamline your international payments from exports with Skydo. Get your account within 5 minutes at no forex margin today!

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Air Import General Manifest (IGM) is a legal document filed with the Indian Customs for all goods arriving in India by air. It is submitted by the airline or its authorised agent (such as a ground handler), not the exporter or importer.

This requirement falls under Section 30 of the Customs Act, and its primary purpose is to inform Customs about the details of incoming cargo, including the consignor, consignee, and shipment information, before clearance begins.

An Air IGM contains a complete summary of cargo on a flight, including:

Customs uses this information to assess risk, identify restricted goods, and plan inspections.

Air IGM tracking is not just a routine check. It helps you identify issues early and take timely follow-up actions, which can support faster customs clearance.

A Bill of Entry can be filed in advance using shipment details such as the AWB number, even before the Air IGM is accepted on ICEGATE. However, it will not be processed or assessed until the IGM status shows “Accepted.” If the IGM is pending or has errors, the clearance process cannot move forward. Many importers constantly check the status of the ICEGATE bill of entry. They don’t realize that the problem actually lies with the IGM.&nbsp;

The longer your cargo remains stuck at the airport, the higher the cost added. You need to shell out demurrage charges, warehouse rent, and handling fees. Timely tracking allows you to follow up and reduce avoidable delays.&nbsp;

Even small mistakes can disrupt the process significantly. Here are some of the common errors:

Improves Visibility of the Supply Chain&nbsp;

Importers can combine Air IGM tracking with tools such as Bill of Entry status and cargo tracking updates to get a clearer view of their shipment cycle and take quicker corrective action when needed.&nbsp;

How to Track Air IGM Status on ICEGATE: A Step-by-Step Guide

When you know the details that are to be entered, tracking Air IGM on ICEGATE becomes a simple process. There’s no technical knowledge required. You must simply provide accurate data. Follow these steps to track the Air IGM status:

Visit the ICEGATE portal, navigate to ‘Services’, select ‘Enquiry’ and then the ‘Public Enquiries 2.0’. Now click on ‘Document status’ and select ‘Air IGM’

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Now, provide the necessary details to fill out the fields like location and AWB Number. Cross-check the details for accuracy, as even a small typo error will not show the results.

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Once you enter all the details, click submit. On the system, you will be able to see:

In case the shipment is part of a Consol, you may also see references to ICEGATE air consol data.

Cross-check the details with your Bill of Entry and make sure that the IGM status is accepted, your AWB is correctly linked, and no pending errors show up.&nbsp;

What are the Types of Air IGM Codes on ICEGATE?

Most of the time, confusion arises while understanding what status codes mean. On the portal, you can see short labels. However, each of these has a real implication for your shipment. Here is a simple breakdown that can help you:

What does “Error” Really Mean?

One of the most commonly misunderstood statuses is the “Error”. An error does not mean your shipment is rejected permanently. Some information might be missing or incorrect. Some of the common reasons are incorrect names of the consignee, a mismatch in the Airway Bill, a missing description of the cargo, or errors in data entry.

None of these errors can be fixed by yourself. The IGM has to be corrected and filed again by the airline or its agent.&nbsp;

Importers must note that there might be a difference between CGM-level statuses and master IGM statuses when consolidated cargo is shipped.

If your cargo is part of a consol shipment, you might see:

This means the master manifest is cleared, but your individual shipment is still being processed.&nbsp;

Air IGM vs Sea IGM: Similarities and Differences

The purpose of Air IGM and Sea IGM may be the same. However, there are differences in their processes and timelines. Have a look at how these two compare against each other.

If you export goods or services you must be familiar with the intricacies of receiving payments globally. This is where delays often occur with traditional banking systems due to intermediary charges, unclear FX rates, and slow settlement timelines.

Skydo simplifies this process by enabling exporters to receive <a href="https://www.skydo.com/blog/cross-border-payments">cross-border payments</a> with greater transparency and lower costs. The three key features that make Skydo a preferred choice for exporters are:

Therefore, <a href="https://www.skydo.com/">Skydo</a> serves as a practical solution for importers after tracking and clearing shipments. There’s no need to wait for long bank processes, as this platform helps to move your payment faster.

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What is Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA)?

Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) controls the foreign exchange transactions and manages the movement of foreign cash in and out of the nation. FEMA replaced the stricter Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) and its major goal is to facilitate growth and upkeep of India's foreign exchange market while promoting international commerce and payments.

India's economic liberalisation and reforms led to the introduction of FEMA. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA), which was implemented in 1974, existed in India before FEMA. The government had enforced strict regulations to restrict foreign exchange outflows under FERA. The main goal then was to guarantee that foreign currency was only utilised for necessary reasons.

However, there was a growing realisation that the strict FERA restrictions were no longer appropriate for a more liberalised economy as India's economy started to open up in the early 1990s. This led to the introduction of FEMA.

FEMA applies to individuals residing in India, Indian-owned entities operating abroad and NRIs when dealing with transactions in India. It can also extend to foreign companies with at least 60% ownership.&nbsp;

Additionally, the scope of FEMA India also covers the following areas:

FEMA does not apply to transactions that are solely between two foreign parties without any link to India.

As an exporter or freelancer receiving foreign payments, you have to be FEMA compliant. While most of the compliance happens through your bank and connected government systems in the background, your job is to set up the right foundations and verify the right documents at each step.

Get your IEC: Your Importer Exporter Code (IEC) is your export identity issued by DGFT. Without it, you cannot legally export from India. Apply on <a href="http://dgft.gov.in">dgft.gov.in</a>.

Register your AD Code: Your bank issues an Authorised Dealer (AD) code that links your specific bank account to your export transactions.&nbsp;

File your LUT annually (service exporters only): A Letter of Undertaking filed on the GST portal confirms your services are zero-rated for GST, so you don't charge GST on export invoices. File it once every financial year before raising your first export invoice.

Raise your invoice: Issue your invoice in foreign currency with a clear description of the goods or service provided.&nbsp;

File your export declaration: This is your formal declaration to RBI that an export has occurred and payment is expected. How you file depends on what you export:

From October 2026, both routes will be replaced by a unified Export Declaration Form (EDF) filed directly with your AD bank.&nbsp;

Verify your purpose code: A Foreign Inward Remittance Advice (FIRA) is issued by your bank when payment arrives. Check that the purpose code on it correctly reflects your service or goods exported.&nbsp;

Confirm EDPMS reconciliation: Submit all documents such as shipping bill, packing list, etc, so that your bank can match the incoming payment against your open export entry in EDPMS. This entry on the EDPMS has to be closed by the bank.

Download your e-BRC: An Electronic Bank Realisation Certificate (e-BRC) is issued DGFT once the payment is reconciled against your export entry. Obtaining your e-BRC is separate from closing your entry on EDPMS. Retain the e-BRC for GST refund claims, export incentive applications, and income tax documentation.

FEMA compliance is not a one-time event. It is an ongoing process tied to every invoice you raise and every payment you receive.&nbsp;

Common Mistakes in FEMA Compliance &amp; How to Fix Them

What are the Penalties for FEMA Violation?

FEMA provides a precise structure for handling transgressions of its rules. FEMA penalties are mostly monetary, but they may also include property confiscation and, in extreme circumstances or for failure to pay, even imprisonment.

Here are the different categories of penalties for FEMA violations:

Penalties for Purchasing Foreign Assets Illegally

Growing Global

Staying Compliant blogs